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Sign in. Forgot your password? One of the best examples would be the medieval Song Chinese Shen Kuo — , a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marinefossils in the Taihang Mountains hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean , Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology.
He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrifiedbamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province.
If not for Shen Kuo's writing, [63] the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable typeprinting, Bi Sheng — Shen's contemporary Su Song — was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomicalclocktower in Kaifeng city in To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries 'learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture.
Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors Zhang Heng in the 2nd century , the water-poweredcelestial globe Zhang Heng , matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the ironplough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.
However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what we might call 'modern science'. According to Needham, it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature:.
It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime.
In the Middle Ages the classical learning continued in three major linguistic cultures and civilizations: Greek the Byzantine Empire , Arabic the Islamic world , and Latin Western Europe.
Because of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the intellectual level in the western part of Europe declined in the s.
In contrast, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire resisted the barbarian attacks, and preserved and improved the learning. While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch, Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in monasteries until the development of medieval universities in the 12th centuries.
The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine [69] and timekeeping. In the sixth century in the Byzantine Empire, Isidore of Miletus compiled Archimedes' mathematical works in the Archimedes Palimpsest, where all Archimedes' mathematical contributions were collected and studied. John Philoponus, another Byzantine scholar, was the first to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the theory of impetus.
It is the intellectual precursor to the concepts of inertia, momentum and acceleration in classical mechanics. The first record of separating conjoined twins took place in the Byzantine Empire in the s when the surgeons tried to separate a dead body of a pair of conjoined twins. The result was partly successful as the other twin managed to live for three days. The next recorded case of separating conjoined twins was several centuries later, in s Germany.
Byzantium also gave the West important inputs: John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics, and the works of Dioscorides. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century.
This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon. Scientific method began developing in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham Alhazen on optics from c.
Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the 'first scientist' for his development of the modern scientific method. In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi c. In astronomy, Al-Battani c.
Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. Muslim chemists and alchemists played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. Scholars such as Will Durant [88] and Fielding H. Garrison [89] considered Muslim chemists to be the founders of chemistry. Ibn Sina Avicenna, c. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, [96] and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.
Islamic science began its decline in the 12th or 13th century, before the Renaissance in Europe, and due in part to the 11th—13th century Mongol conquests, during which libraries, observatories, hospitals and universities were destroyed. By the eleventh century, most of Europe had become Christian; stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored; technological developments and agricultural innovations were made, increasing the food supply and population.
Classical Greek texts were translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin, stimulating scientific discussion in Western Europe. An intellectual revitalization of Western Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin.
Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, [] with the result that the 'medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent.
In classical antiquity, Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned, but in the Middle Ages medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and Mondino de Luzzi c.
As a result of the Pax Mongolica, Europeans, such as Marco Polo, began to venture further and further east. This led to the increased awareness of Indian and even Chinese culture and civilization within the European tradition. Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury who had studied Mathematics in 11th century England , [] and the metallurgical achievements of the Cistercianblast furnace at Laskill.
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy in these texts began to be extended by scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus.
Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's thesis is that Stephen Tempier - the Bishop of Paris - Condemnation of led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, 'but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in '.
The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia.
In , the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was stimulated by the Fall of Constantinople in , when many Byzantine scholars sought refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed ideas such as algebra to propagate more rapidly.
These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, where scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death, resumed.
The renewal of learning in Europe began with 12th century Scholasticism. The Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences botany, anatomy, and medicine. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine.
The works of Ptolemy astronomy and Galen medicine were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy. The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution.
The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in , when the books De humani corporis fabrica On the Workings of the Human Body by Andreas Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus , by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed.
The thesis of Copernicus' book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The scientific method was also better developed as the modern way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations. The Age of Enlightenment was a European affair. The 17th century brought decisive steps towards modern science, which accelerated during the 18th century. Directly based on the works [] of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technologyby the generation of Benjamin Franklin — , Leonhard Euler — , Mikhail Lomonosov — and Jean le Rond d'Alembert — The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy Immanuel Kant, David Hume , religion the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion , and society and politics in general Adam Smith, Voltaire.
The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science.
The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. Major breakthroughs came in biology, especially in Darwin's theory of evolution, as well as physics electromagnetism , mathematics non-Euclidean geometry, group theory and chemistry organic chemistry.
The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, Positivism, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after and lasted until about With the scientific revolution, paradigms established in the time of Classical antiquity were replaced with those of scientists like Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton. As the role of scientific knowledge grew in society, it became incorporated with many aspects of the functioning of nation-states.
The scientific revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.
Galileo ' Father of Modern Physics ' also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method. William Gilbert did some of the earliest experiments with electricity and magnetism, establishing that the Earth itself is magnetic. In , Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica , detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity.
During the late 18th and early 19th century, the behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Luigi Galvani, Giovanni Aldini, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm, and others. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell known as Maxwell's equations.
The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances.
Beginning in , Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels.
Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in , showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist.
In Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A.
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To classify them gram positive. If we look at. In gram. This layer has two techoic and. In gram negative. The lipopolysaccharide. So we. These endotoxins are antigenic which. So that's it for the intro hope you enjoyed!
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